Marie Curie - Mother of Modern Physics

Marie Curie - Mother of Modern Physics Marie Curie was the first truly famous woman scientist in the modern world.  She was known as the  Mother of Modern Physics for her pioneer work in research about radioactivity, a word she coined. She was the first woman awarded a Ph.D. in research science in Europe  and the first woman professor at the Sorbonne. Curie discovered and isolated polonium and radium, and established the nature of radiation and beta rays. She won Nobel Prizes in  1903 (Physics) and 1911 (Chemistry) and was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize, and the first person to win Nobel Prizes in two different scientific disciplines. Fast Facts: Marie Curie Known For: Research in radioactivity and discovery of polonium and radium. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize (Physics in 1903), and the first person to win a second Nobel Prize (Chemistry in 1911)Also Known As: Maria SklodowskaBorn: November 7, 1867 in Warsaw, PolandDied: July 4, 1934 in Passy, FranceSpouse: Pierre Curie (m. 1896-1906)Children: Irà ¨ne and ÈveInteresting Fact: Marie Curies daughter, Irà ¨ne, also won a Nobel Prize (Chemistry in 1935) Early Life and Education Marie Curie was born in Warsaw, the youngest of five children. Her father was a physics teacher, her mother, who died when Curie was 11, was also an educator. After graduating with high honors in her early schooling, Marie Curie found herself, as a woman, without options in Poland for higher education. She spent some time as a governess, and in 1891 followed her sister, already a gynecologist, to Paris. In Paris, Marie Curie enrolled at the Sorbonne. She graduated in first place in physics (1893), then, on a scholarship, returned for a degree in mathematics in which she took second place (1894). Her plan was to return to teach in Poland. Research and Marriage She began to work as a researcher in Paris. Through  her work, she met a French scientist, Pierre Curie, in 1894 when he was 35. They were married on July 26, 1895, in a civil marriage. Their first child, Irà ¨ne, was born in 1897. Marie Curie continued to work on her research and began work as a physics lecturer at a girls school. Radioactivity Inspired by work on radioactivity in uranium by Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie began research on Becquerel rays to see if other elements also had this quality. First, she discovered radioactivity in thorium, then demonstrated that the radioactivity is not a property of an interaction between elements but is an atomic property, a property of the interior of the atom rather than how it is arranged in a molecule. On April 12, 1898, she published her hypothesis of a still-unknown radioactive element, and worked with pitchblende and chalcocite, both uranium ores, to isolate this element. Pierre joined her in this research. Marie Curie and Pierre Curie thus discovered first polonium (named for her native Poland) and then radium. They announced these elements in 1898. Polonium and radium were present in very small amounts in pitchblende, along with larger quantities of uranium. Isolating the very small amounts of the new elements took years of work. On January 12, 1902, Marie Curie isolated pure radium, and her 1903 dissertation resulted in the first advanced scientific research degree to be awarded to a woman in France- the first doctorate in science awarded to a woman in all of Europe. In 1903, for their work, Marie Curie, her husband Pierre, and Henry Becquerel, were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics. The Nobel Prize committee reportedly first considered giving the award to Pierre Curie and Henry Becquerel, and Pierre worked behind the scenes to ensure that Marie Curie won appropriate recognition by being included. It was also in 1903 that Marie and Pierre lost a child, born prematurely. Radiation poisoning from working with radioactive substances had begun to take a toll, though the Curies did not know it or were in denial of that. They were both too sickly to attend the 1903 Nobel ceremony in Stockholm. In 1904, Pierre was given a professorship at the Sorbonne for his work. The professorship established more financial security for the Curie family- Pierres father had moved in to help care for the children. Marie was given a small salary and a title as Chief of the Laboratory. That same year, the Curies established the use of radiation therapy for cancer and lupus, and their second daughter, Ève, was born. Ève would later write a biography of her mother. In 1905, the Curies finally traveled to Stockholm, and Pierre gave the Nobel Lecture. Marie was annoyed by the attention to their romance rather than to their scientific work. From Wife to Professor But security was short-lived, as Pierre was killed suddenly in 1906 when he was run over by a horse-drawn carriage on a Paris street. This left Marie Curie a widow with responsibility for raising her two young daughters. Marie Curie was offered a national pension, but turned it down. A month after Pierres death, she was offered his chair at the Sorbonne, and she accepted. Two years later she was elected a full professor- the first woman to hold a chair at the Sorbonne. Further Work Marie Curie spent the next years organizing her research, supervising the research of others, and raising funds. Her Treatise on Radioactivity was published in 1910. Early in 1911, Marie Curie was denied election to the French Academy of Sciences by one vote. Emile Hilaire Amagat said of the vote, Women cannot be part of the Institute of France. Marie Curie refused to have her name resubmitted for nomination and refused to allow the Academy to publish any of her work for ten years.  The press attacked her for her candidacy. Nevertheless, that same year she was appointed director of the Marie Curie Laboratory, part of the Radium Institute of the University of Paris, and of the Institute for Radioactivity in Warsaw, and she was awarded a second Nobel Prize. Tempering her successes that year was a scandal: a newspaper editor alleged an affair between Marie Curie and a married scientist. He denied the charges, and the controversy ended when the editor and scientist arranged a duel, but neither fired. Years later, Marie and Pierres granddaughter married the grandson of the scientist which whom she may have had the affair. During World War I, Marie Curie chose to support the French war effort actively. She put her prize winnings into war bonds and fitted ambulances with portable x-ray equipment for medical purposes, driving the vehicles to the front lines. She established two hundred permanent x-ray installations in France and Belgium. After the war, her daughter Irene joined Marie Curie as an assistant at the laboratory. The Curie Foundation was established in 1920 to work on medical applications for radium. Marie Curie took an important trip to the United States in 1921 to accept the generous gift of a gram of pure radium for research. In 1924, she published her biography of her husband. Illness and Death The work of Marie Curie, her husband, and colleagues with radioactivity was done in ignorance of its effect on human health. Marie Curie and her daughter Irene contracted leukemia, apparently induced by exposure to high levels of radioactivity. The notebooks of Marie Curie are still so radioactive that they cannot be handled. Marie Curies health was declining seriously by the end of the 1920s. Cataracts contributed to failing vision. Marie Curie retired to a sanatorium, with her daughter Eve as her companion. She died of pernicious anemia, also most likely an effect of the radioactivity in her work, in 1934.

Location and Function of the Pons in the Human Brain

Location and Function of the Pons in the Human Brain In Latin, the word pons literally means bridge. The pons is a portion of the hindbrain that connects the cerebral cortex with the medulla oblongata. It also serves as a communications and coordination center between the two hemispheres of the brain. As a part of the brainstem, the pons helps in the transferring of nervous system messages between various parts of the brain and the spinal cord. Function The pons is involved in several functions of the body including: ArousalAutonomic function: breathing regulationRelaying sensory information between the cerebrum and cerebellumSleep Several cranial nerves originate in the pons. The largest cranial nerve, the trigeminal nerve aids in facial sensation and chewing. The abducens nerve assists in eye movement. The facial nerve enables facial movement and expressions. It also aids in our sense of taste and swallowing. The vestibulocochlear nerve aids in hearing and helps us maintain our equilibrium. The pons  helps to regulate the respiratory system by assisting the medulla oblongata in controlling breathing rate. The pons is also involved in the control of sleep cycles and the regulation of deep sleep. The pons activates inhibitory centers in the medulla in order to inhibit movement during sleep. Another primary function of the pons is to connect the forebrain with the hindbrain. It connects the cerebrum to the cerebellum through the cerebral peduncle. The cerebral peduncle is the anterior portion of the midbrain that consists of large nerve tracts. The pons relays sensory information between the cerebrum and cerebellum. Functions under the control of the cerebellum include  fine motor coordination and control, balance, equilibrium, muscle tone, fine motor coordination, and a sense of body position. Location Directionally, the pons is superior to the medulla oblongata and inferior to the midbrain. Sagittally, it is anterior to the cerebellum and posterior to the pituitary gland. The fourth ventricle runs posteriorly to the pons and medulla in the brainstem. Pons Injury Damage to the pons can result in serious problems as this brain area is important for connecting areas of the brain that control autonomic functions and movement. Injury to the pons may result in sleep disturbances, sensory problems, arousal dysfunction and coma. Locked-in syndrome is a condition resulting from damage to nerve pathways in the pons that connect the cerebrum, spinal cord, and cerebellum. The damage disrupts voluntary muscle control leading to quadriplegia and the inability to speak. Individuals with locked-in syndrome are consciously aware of what is going on around them but are unable to move any parts of their bodies except for their eyes and eyelids. They communicate by blinking or moving their eyes. Locked-in syndrome is most commonly caused by decreased blood flow to the pons or bleeding in the pons. These symptoms are often the result of blood clot or stroke. Damage to the myelin sheath of nerve cells in the pons results in a condition called central pontine myelinolysis. The myelin sheath is an insulating layer of lipids and proteins that help neurons conduct nerve impulses more efficiently. Central pontine myelinolysis can result in difficulty swallowing and speaking, as well as paralysis. A blockage of the arteries that supply blood to the pons can cause a type of stroke known as lacunar stroke. This type of stroke occurs deep within the brain and typically only involves a small portion of the brain.  Individuals suffering from a lacunar stroke may experience numbness, paralysis, loss of memory,  difficulty in speaking or walking, coma, or death. Divisions of the Brain Forebrain: encompasses the cerebral cortex and brain lobes.Midbrain: connects the forebrain to the hindbrain.Hindbrain: regulates autonomic functions and coordinates movement.